3D.++Cultural+&+Intellectual+Developments

The Scientific Revolution was a period in European history from the mid sixteen hundreds through the seventeen hundreds. This was a period of time in which scientific discoveries and academic understanding greatly increased. The Scientific Revolution had many individual causes. When they were combined, they created the single greatest era of discovery in the natural sciences. Some of these causes included the printing press, naval exploration and navigation, improved scientific instruments, medieval universities, and the Italian renaissance.
 * Causes of the Scientific Revolution**   __**Intro**__

__**Printing Press**__ The printing press was fundamental in the distribution of information during the Scientific Revolution. Much of the information discovered in the Scientific Revolution was complied into a small number of books that held great amounts of information. Books such as Copernicus's //On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies// which stated that the sun was the center of the solar system and that planets orbited the sun, as well as the idea of a vast universe. Many other books like this were published in great quantities, which spread this newly discovered information to the general public. __**Naval Exploration and Navigation**__ Naval exploration and navigation became very important in this time period due to the continuous trade and colonization of Asia and the Americas. Naval technology was in high demand and was soon a problem assigned to astronomers and mathmeticians. One obstacle to be overcome was the problem of using instruments to determine the latitude of a ship for more efficient travel. This and other problems plagued the naval merchants of western Europe on their extensive voyages to foreign lands. Many National leaders sponsored mathematicians and astronomers to create solutions to these problems in order to increase the efficiency of trade. This government sponsored research began a trend that supplied the academic community with much needed funds to research potentially beneficial sciences and technologies. __**Improved Scientific Instruments**__ New scientific instruments made discovery easier and more widespread as academics across Europe had the resources to research with. One of these instruments was the telescope, invented by Galileo Galilei. This was invented to observe the cycles of the moon, but was soon improved and used to observe many different celestial events. Another important invention by Galileo was the microscope. This devise allowed scientists to observe small particles of mass, which were invisible to the naked eye. This lead in part to the discovery of the foundations of all matter, elements. These two and many more inventions assisted scientists and academics in new research that lead to many important discoveries. Galileo's Telescope __**Medieval Universities**__ The middle ages played a part in the beginning of the Scientific Revolution through the creation of universities and colleges which provoked thought and scientific research. The universities of Paris and Oxford are both considered medieval universities. These and many more centers of education were hubs of learning and knowledge. As time went on, these colleges created abundant discussion and eventually opposition to the previously established laws of the world. In the pre-Scientific Revolution era, many explanations for why things occurred were simple and circular in logic. One example of this is "glass breaks because it is breakable". This circular logic was based on the idea that actions of objects were based on their interior structure, which could only be described by the objects action. Eventually the great thinkers of the time rejected this circular logic in pursuit of greater understanding. In centers of learning across Europe academics began to look for new answers to solve these difficult questions. This was one of the most powerful forces in the creation of the Scientific Revolution. University of Paris __**Italian Renaissance**__ The Italian Renaissance is a well know cause of the Scientific Revolution mainly because it occurred in immediately before the era and is often aquatinted with the same principals of new ideas and understanding. The Renaissance created a renewed interest in the Greek scientific studies, including those of the natural sciences. This re-awakening of scientific study brought new attention to information that was somewhat hidden from the public for centuries. More study of this time period also lead to understandings of the methods used by the Greeks to advance their own knowledge. Academics then used these same methods in Europe to better understand the world around them. Da Vinci - The Father of the Renaissance **Effects of the Scientific Revolution** **__Ideas__** The impact of the Scientific led to an extreme increase in the amount of knowledge and technology in the world. Isaac Newton noticed an apple fall from a tree and sought out the reason to why the apple fell. After further investigation, Newton came up with the idea that there was constant downward force acting on all the objects on Earth. He called this force, gravity. Gravity led to physics and the use of calculus to solve equations. Also, Renee Descartes developed analytical geometry and the equation to plot projectiles. During the Scientific Revolution, we also learned that the earth was not the center of the galaxy. Nicolas Copernicus presented the idea of a heliocentric theory of the galaxy, which we know today to be the true model. Vasalius developed an elaborate book that documented the correct anatomy of the human body. This gave scientists a more correct idea of how the body worked.

**__Inventions__** Many things that are vital to the world today were invented during the scientific revolution. Galileo perfected the telescope so he could better observe the moon. With the telescope, Galileo went on to make detailed sketches of the phases of the moon. Also the microscope was invented. This allowed scientists to get a more clear understanding of microscopic particles. The barometer and thermometer were invented so the weather could be better observed and predicted. Trends were notices that led to the ability to somewhat project weather. Benjamin Franklin invented the bifocals which help people see better. They are still used frequently today (usually by senior citizens). The steam engine was invented that powered boats andachines alike.



**__Summary__** Countless ideas and inventions that are important in today’s world were developed during the Scientific Revolution. I have only high-lighted a few but, the list goes on and on. Without the scientific revolution, the progression of Man would have moved at an extremely slower pace. The Scientific Revolution gave people the knowledge and tools to create the modern technology and ideas that we have today. **Enlightenment**

**__General__** The Enlightenment was inspired by the Scientific Revolution. It took science reasoning and applied it to human nature, society, and religion.

**__Britain__** The British Enlightenment began earlier than other European countries. It began as early as 1688 during the Glorious Revolution when King James II of England was overthrown by Parliamentarians. This revolution was the beginning of the modern English parliamentary democracy. Since then, the monarch has not held absolute power. Another outcome of this revolution was the Bill of Rights of 1689 which was passed by parliament in December of 1689. It is very similar the the United States' Bill of Rights. In the Age of Enlightenment, knowledge became easier to obtain with the help of libraries, coffee houses, clubs, and museums. People could now interact and share there opinions on social and political issues, which led to separate clubs and groups to form. One of the most known are the Freemasons. In order to join this group there were certain requirements. Some include: be a man with their own free will, not born into slavery, and must have a good reputation. Freemasonry has no religious affiliation By the early 18th century there were over 2000 clubs in Britain in which over 300 of them were masonic lodges.



**__France__** The Age of Enlightenment began in France when Louis XIV died in 1715. The enlightenment is broken into various stages: Regency, reign of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and the French Revolution. The Regency occurred because after Louis XIV died Louis XV was heir to the throne. Unfortunately, he was a minor. His land was governed by a Regent, Phillpe d' Orleans, who was the nephew of Louis XIV of France. At one point France experienced eight years of domestic peace and economic prosperity. Salons, cafes, and clubs began to emerge the same as in Britain. During this time of prosperity, the monarchical authority began to decline. Also the capitalistic middle class beagn to rise in financial power and wanted to separate from the monarchy. Freemasonry emerged at the same time as in Britain. It came about after King James II was exiled.



**__Prussia__** In Germany the Enlightenment is known as the Aufklarung. It began around 1650 and ended in the early 1800s. Unlike other countries during this period, the Aufklarung did not affect social classes nor was it based on religion. Instead it affected the people directly by increasing the freedom of the press and enhancing the judicial system.



**__America__** The Enlightenment of America is described as being a mixture of moderate and radical actions because it took ideas from France and England. The Enlightenment helped build the foundation of the U.S. Core values such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness emerged. The authors of the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights were inspired by principles of the Enlightenment period. The Enlightenment affected the religions of American philosophers. American philosophers regarded Christianity as the tool of tyrants and they also felt it defended the monarchy. This is why deism emerged. Deism is the philosophical belief in a deity on reason rather than religious revelation or dogma. Thomas Jefferson wrote what is called the //Jefferson Bible// in which he tried to extract the doctrine of Jesus by removing everything out of the New Testament that was supernatural. John Adams, Ben Franklin, and George Washington also practiced deism.



**__South America__** The Enlightenment began in South America when Native Americans began to rebel against Spanish rule in the 1700s. The official strike did not began until the early 1800s. The creoles led a revolt against the Spanish with the help of Simon Bolivar. He was an educated creole who always dreamed of independence for his country. After gaining major support from the creoles he was able to establish a republic in Venezuela. He was then overthrown by conservative forces. He then decided to attack the Spanish at Bogota. His victory established the Republica de Columbia, which includes modern Columbia, Ecuado, and Venezuela.



**__Haiti__** The Enlightenment in Haiti was inspired by the French Revolution. It was sparked by Haitians having lesser rights and being enslaved. In 1791, there was a slave revolt in Saint Domingue and it was led by Toussaint L'Ouverture. He was born into slavery but managed to freed and learned to speak French and African. In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to regain control. In 1793, British troops invaded Saint Domingue because of the French and British War. In order to build an alliance with the gens de couleur (people of color) and slaves, the French commissioners abolished slavery. This later caused all of the French colonies to endorse abolition.